Monday 28 August 2017

ËNDËRR ME ZANA

                          ESE
                                                          nga Pirro LOLI

                                                             (Shkrimtar dhe Poet)-Tiranë
    
Pirro LOLI
         Zanat janë prej zëri. Ne u themi edhe shtojzovalle (shtoju-zot-vallet) që në thelb shprehin dëshirën e shumimit, të zërit, valles, bukurisë së madhe e të vazhdueshme. Të gjitha janë të gjinisë femërore, vasha të bukura, “nudo”, prej drite, tingulli e aromash që këndojnë e vallëzojnë deri në magjepsje. (Homeri i përfytyron sirenat qenie me fytyrë, qafë e gjoks të brishtë femre, me këmbë zogu dhe bisht peshku, duke e perceptuar thelbin e tyre edhe më mistiko-magjik se aedët paganë pararendës).
         Zanat jetojnë, këndojnë e vallëzojnë larg syrit të njeriut, lartësive olimpike, pranë burimeve të Hipekronit, në Helikonin e pyllëzuar, në pllajat e malit të Pindit (rastësisht pranë vendlindjes sime), dhe gjithandej bjeshkëve të malësive tona, atje ku bari dhe gjethja prekin majëmalet e dëborta, atje ku hëna ulet e i lan pllajat e burimet me lëngun e saj të argjendtë...
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         Nuk mbaj mend në ç’përrallë a mësim shkolle i kam ndeshur për herë të parë, por gjithmonë më ka shoqëruar enigma e çuditshme se këto bukuroshe kanë qenë edhe të rrezikshme nëse kontakton me to, ose nëse kërkon të këndosh si ato. Nga shkolla në shkollë e nga libri në libër, unë do t’i plotësoja njohuritë për to, do pyesja e do debatoja edhe me profesorët e mi Eqrem Çabej, Shaban Demiraj, Zihni Sako etj. e gjithmonë me vështirësi, do t’i përfytyroja herë si hyjni, herë si xhinde, herë zana, herë muza, herë sirena, të gjitha të njohura në mitologjinë ballkanike në Iliadën homerike dhe në eposet tona; balada, këngë, përralla, poezi etj. Të gjitha mbulur me një tis mjegullor enigmtik e të frikshëm.
Një plakë e moçme në fshat analfabete më tregonte për një Marie që i kishte humbur lopa e doli rrëzës së malit për ta kërkuar. Te shkëmbi i Somanikut; “viu-viu- viuuuu” iu bë një zë e një erë e çuditshme që mbushi luginën. Seç qe një si vajzë e bukur, tha, që kishte zë të ëmbël, të magjishëm e këndonte për një yll të vdekur. E pa Maria e desh t’i fliste, por ajo xhinde e bukur i mori gojën. Si i mori gojën, e kam pyetur unë. Ia mori, po. Ia mori në vend. Iu pre zëri në fillim e pastaj i pushoi zemra. Pa zë vdiq. Pa gojë, nga ajo e bukura....
         Norbert Jokli thotë se: “Zana” rrjedh prej latinishtes “Diana”, por mua më bind më tepër prof. Çabej, që te “Zana” shikon thelbin za – zë- zëri, prej nga merr edhe emrin. Kuptimi pagan i tyre si zë, është shumë i lashtë. (Kujto se tempulli i muzave [Zanave] “Museioni”, është ndërtuar në vitin 200 para Krishtit dhe, para se të shkatërrohej nga arabët, u bë fidanishtja më e madhe artistike e botës antike).
Zanat ose shtojzavallet pa dyshim janë produkte shpirtërore çastesh të rralla, gjendje të veçanta ku shpirti i njeriut dëshiron të dëgjojë zërat magjikë të natyrës e, duke dashur t’i ketë brenda rrethit të njohurive të veta, i ka krijuar (përfytyruar) si vasha hyjnore, orë e zana ogurmira. .. U ka bërë edhe statuja e muzeume atyre të bukurave, por edhe me huqe të rënda e me ligjet e çuditshme të mosprekjes së Bukurisë (me B të madhe); atje, caktuar pranë hyjnisë, por gjithsesi zëra të natyrës, reflekse jehonash, zëra mistike të paimitueshëm, melodi ere, shushurimë krojesh e dallgësh, këngët e shiut e të gjethes, drithërimat e barit, zilet dhe këmborët..., krejt këngët e tokës e të detit që prej paganizmit të lashtë erdhën deri te njeriu modern i cili filloi të imitojë sadopak nëpër vegla, kallama, bilbila, fyej curle, çifteli, lira e deri te veglat e sotme elektronike e orkestra moderne së bashku me shenjat e tyre (grafinë) në pentagram. Imazhi i parë ka qenë hedhja e “yllit” në pentagram (një pikë në vijë apo fushë) sepse çdo yll qiellor nga pozicioni që ka, jep edhe tinguj të ndryshëm. Pentagrami me notat dhe kodet e veta me kombinacionet e pafundme, është shenja më e kompletuar simbolike në të gjithë artet, që e bën muzikën mbretëreshën e padiskutueshme të çdo krijimtarie artistike. Por, ndërsa meloditë afroheshin gjithnjë e më shumë te veshi i njeriut, ai, përfytyrimi fillestar i tyre, zana, si vashë, shtyhej tutje pranë lartësive misterioze, diku në të fshehtat e natyrës, më afër qiellit se tokës, deri te hyjnesha e tyre, Artemida, (motër binjake me Apolloin), ajo virgjëresha bukuroshe e pyjeve, krojeve, gjahut të sorkadheve, këngëve e valleve, por, gjithsesi, e paparë nga syri i njeriut, sepse...
         Sepse imazhet nuk flasin dhe asnjë i gjallë nuk e ka parë fytyrën e tyre, me përjashtim të poetëve.
Ju kujtohet Aktioni, gjahtari i mitologjisë, i sorkadheve, i privilegjuari i Apolonit, që, mjeroni ai, pa dashur, pa me sy Artemidën me zanat e veta përreth, që po lahej lakuriq në buzë të lumit, e ajo, virgjëresha bukuroshe, e ktheu Aktionin në sorkadhe e qentë e tij të gjahut sa ndjenë erën e sorkadhes, e copëtuan të zotin e tyre...
         Kushdo që i ka ndeshur ato ballë për ballë, ka vdekur. Madje edhe përfytyrimi i njeriut për to është i ndryshëm. Dhe në emra. Ato thirren Zana, Orë, Nereida, nimfa, nuse, sirena(tek ne shtojzavalle- shtoju Zot vallet) etj. të gjitha, në thelb, janë zë, tinguj, melodi magjike dhe të bukura te zoti, andaj dhe me aftësi çudibërëse e profetike.
         Kryesisht këngëtare e valltare, por ato janë edhe vajtojca, që qajnë bukur, “sirena vajtore”, “muzat e vajit”. Te ne njihen këto si vajtore të Durrësit, Antigonesë, Apolonisë, Vlorës, dhe quhen edhe “vajzat e virgjëra të natës”, apo stihitë e vdekjes. 
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         Te grekët e lashtë, afër vajtojcave tona janë Erinitë, vajzat e Hadit, të bukurat e vdekjes, me flokë gjarpërinjsh e sy të zjarrtë, që hakmerren ndaj atyre që dëmtojnë seksin femër. Folklori ynë i ka ulur zanat e muzat më në tokë, i ka anthopozuar si femra për të kënduar e për të qarë (Vajtimi i Ajkunës), ose këngë e vaje në Labëri e në Malësinë e Veriut, sidomos në Tropojë.) Vdekja është dhembja me ndjeshmëri të lartë dhe njeriu ndien nevojën të shprehet me zë, këngë, ofshama, britma, gjeste e lot; në vajet tona “këndojnë” vajtojcat, por në disa zona, qajnë edhe burrat. Sidoqoftë, në këto raste kemi uljen e Zanës nga trojet mistike të së bukurës së padukshme në trajtat e njeriut.
Këtu unë e kam fjalën për të bukurat lart, ato enigmat e mbuluara me mister, zanat me zërin së sipërmi, ku hyjnia ka pjesën e vet.
         Pushteti i tyre është zëri melodioz dhe, si çdo pushtet, ato imponohen edhe në “sanksione” apeluese për ata që i shohin e i dëgjojnë. Ato nuk pranojnë asnjë sfidë. Diku thashë që janë të gjitha të gjinisë femërore ndoshta, prandaj pushteti i tyre është më zemërak; ndoshta kjo lidhet me shpërbërjen e matriarkatit e ajo, femra që humbi pushtetin, mbajti vetëm dy elemente bazale, atë të lindjes dhe atë të bukurisë. Dy pushtete këto që nuk kapërcejnë dot te mashkulli; është ofshama shpirtërore, shpërthimet e ndjenjave të skajshme, që japin lot e kënaqësi të veçantë, por edhe të rrezikshme në profecinë e tyre fataliste e vrastare për atë që guxon t’i sfidojë. Të vret bukuria, të vrasin vajet e sirenat me këngë; të vret poezia e bukur, e panjohura, e padëgjuara, misteriozja (kujto sa vrastare qenë sirenat tek “Odiseja” e Homerit). Ishulli i tyre “Anthemoezes” (ishulli i luleve, greqisht), ku jetonin sirenat, ishte mbushur me varre. Lule dhe kocka. Këngë e melodi që çmendën Odisenë me atë kënaqësi magjike, por edhe mashtrim e kurth për t’i çuar në Had. Edhe shpellat e guvat e gjelbëruara, ku jetojnë zanat në bjeshkët tona, “krejt rrethuar janë me bregore kockash e kafkash”.
         Dhe dihet: Gjeto Muji, kreshniku i eposit tonë, e dinte rrezikun: ato kthenin në gur ose kallkan të gjithë kalimtarët që i shohin ose kalojnë pranë tyre duke kënduar. Dhe u tha Muji dasmorëve......: “Kur në bjeshkë keni me dalë,/ mos bani as za e as piskamë,/ se zanat kanë me u zanue...”. (Kujto porosinë e Circes tek Odiseja... vulosi veshët me dyllë... ). Dasmorët e kreshnikët e harruan porosinë dhe Zanat i zanuan të pabindurit (Vini re foljen “zanoj”, “me zanue” – rrënja është zë, za; veprim ndëshkimor me zë). Krushqit i gurëzuan dhe nusen e Mujit e morën robinjë. Më vonë Muji dhëndër, mbetur pa nuse, mësoi se forca e orëve qëndronte te një pëllumb, e vetëm pasi e kapi dhe e vrau atë, çliroi krushqit dhe nusen e tij. Mesazhi kalon brezash i pashkruar, si erë e si jehonë: Mos e prek botën e misterit, mos e sfido shpirtin suprem të bukurisë; në katin e sipërm të artit, ku banon ajo, nuk shkohet me opinga me baltë; nëse të takon diçka nga festa në altar, mos harro të ulësh kokën e të veshësh sandale të mëndafshta.., se “zanat kanë me të zanue...”.
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         Një natë në ëndërr, kur isha shtruar në spital pas një operacioni të vështirë në zë, u bëra me poetin e madh, Gjergj Fishtën. I paskesha dërguar unë një e-mail dhe i kërkoja takim urgjent për... Ai erdhi. S’e kisha takuar ndonjëherë kaq afër. Ishte burrë i bardhë, vetullshkruar dhe i qeshur, ekzemplar i një race të bukur e të lashtë iliriane. I putha dorën me ndrojë e ai u fut menjëherë në bisedë.
-Ju keni pasë do vrejtje për muzat e mia?
-Po, atë.
-Rrnofsh, o bir! Po të nij, pa hë!
-Më ndje atë, - fillova unë, por ju në poemat e tuaja u keni dhënë zanave funksione që nuk i kanë; zanat ose muzat si frymëzim poetik i të gjithë poetëve të Ballkanit që nga Homeri, te ju zhvendosen nga sferat qiellore të së bukurës në tokë dhe thirren për armë, duele, therori e ato, nga fluide siç janë nëpër këngët e vallet tona, bëhen luftëtare “e luftojnë gryk për gryk e flak për flak”.
-S’i kam thirrë unë o bir, - tha ati i shenjtë, - por kombi im.
-... më fal, atë, por ky kombi ynë kështu do na i mbyllë gojën gjithmonë, ndaj nuk u bë...?
Pashë që poeti u ngrys dhe nuk i pëlqeu mendimi im, por ashtu siç qe, poet dhe prift, ma liroi litarin e fjalës.
-Po ti fol, o bir! E kombi ynë ka nevojë me na nigju...
-Poeti nuk mund të identifikohet me zanat e aq më pak me zanat luftëtare... me emra e mbiemra nga vajzat dhe gratë e malësive tona; zanat janë produkte qiellore. “Gruaja grue e Zana zanë”.
-Të qiellës jemi të tanë, o bir. Pse a keq me kenë dhe ushtar dhe kangtar?!
Pastaj ai se ç’tha një lutje nëpër gojë. Një re shkajti midis nesh e u mblodh shtjella shtjella në trungun e një bredhi e një kor bilbilash u dëgjua më tej. Simfoni bjeshkësh.
-Këto zana luftëtare, - vazhdoja unë në vetmi, - s’na kanë dhënë fitore. Kombi ynë vazhdon të jetë...
-...
-Gjatë Luftës Nacionalçlirimtare, - vazhdova, - këto zana u bënë partizane, vëlla e motër me shqaun... e u bënë luftëtare dhe spiune dhe...
-...
-E më vonë zanat u katandisën kooperativiste, zetoriste e zboriste...
-...
         Vonë e kuptova që po flisja me vete. M’u zhduk nga sytë edhe ajo reja që u mbështoll pas bredhit të bardhë.
         Ra nata, ra dhe hëna e plotë që mbuloi dheun me një dritë qumështoreje e m’u bë se Fishta po mbante një meshë para një grupi varzash të bukura e ai, poeti e personaliteti i madh i shqiptarizmës, nuk po u fliste për zotin, por po u thosh ca vargje melodike. Ngrita veshët e dëgjova: “... u prijnë valleve tue ndritë hana” e “jehojnë male e zalle n’ato kangë e n’ato valle”... “tue m’u la, tue m’u flladitë, herë n’për hanë e herë n’për dritë”.
-Këtu më ke, - thirra unë, e pylli që po digjej nga flakët e hënës e shpërndau zërin tim tejpërtej.
-Ku je? – tha poeti me zërin e ëmbël.
-...herë n’për hanë e herë n’për dritë... .
Dhe për çudinë time fillova të bëja portretin e tyre me fjalët e Fishtës. Them për çudinë time se unë nuk shquhem për përmendësh, por në ëndërr m’u kujtuan të tëra vargjet e mësuara që para tridhjetë vjetësh për portretin e Zanave (!)
“Ardhë shtatit si breshana
Rreze dielli dora e llana
Ftyra shtru n’flet t’drandofillit
Shartue zanin n’za t’bilbilit
Diçka borë e diçka brymë
Si ai qielli më fërfëllimë...”.
         .. E m’u fundos poeti. Diku e mbështolli një re e bardhë a diku një dallgë lumi kockash dalë...Pastaj, andej nga qe zhdukur ai, m’u bë një vajzë bjonde. Lakuriq. E bukura e dheut. Një fjollë e trashë floku i niste në ballë, palosej pas koke, bëhej komb në qafë e si një gërshet gjysmë i shpërbërë i kalonte mbi gjinj, i varej poshtë e i arrinte deri te seksi i tyre. Këmbët e holla i kishte në një këpucë që, në fakt, ishte një guaskë deti, e lart trupi i bardhë me kokën pak anash si portreti i Afërditës së Milosit (varianti grek i perëndeshës)... M’u afrua. Priste fjalën time. Ose këngën. Ose zërin. E tha një çast: -Ç’do prej meje, o vëlla? – Atë që humba, - desha t’i thosha.(Kisha një javë që isha operuar nga laringu)....
Dhe në ëndërr kisha ankthe. Në çast u tremba nga një hije e që m’u hodh me shpejtësi e më pllakosi trupin krahëhapur për të më mbrojtur. -Mos!, - bërtiti, - mos! - Ishte nëna, në-në-za ime. – Mos i hap sytë, mos u zgjo, bërtiste, - mos fol! Ajo kërkon të të marrë...Ajo është zanë, zanë e don me të zanue.. – Desha të flisja, t’i thosha se kjo bukuroshe s’ka çe do vdekjen time, por s’kisha zë e, kur po përmendesha, Ylli i mëngjesit më ra në sy e më zgjoi.
E njihja këtë yll. Ishte zana e zanave
Afër –dita jonë...

Friday 25 August 2017

NA IKU NJË NGA SINICARËT MË TË MIRË


-Homazh për Petraq Dimashin-

                                                                nga Fuat Memelli
                                                                               Boston, MA

            
Petraq Dimashi
         Më 20 korrik të këtij viti, në ditën e Shëndëllisë, ndrroi jetë në Çikago në moshën 61 vjeçare, sinicari Petraq Dimashi. Jo vetëm familja, por shumë shokë e miq të tij, ndien dhimbje. Është dhimbja për njeriun që ikën e nuk vjen. Por, për Petraqin u ndie shumë kjo dhimbje, jo vetëm se “nuk e kishte rradhën” siç shprehet  nënë Ollga për djalin e saj.-Rradhën e kisha unë se jam 84 vjet por sëmundja nuk pyet, thotë ajo. 
         Dhimbja për Petraqin ishte e veçantë, pasi ai kishte një zemër të madhe; se i deshte njerzit dhe e donin; se punoi me përkushtim 14 vjet që shërbeu si oficer në Shqipëri; se punoi 20 vjet në dy punë në Amerikë dhe kudo la gjurmë të pashlyera; se e deshte Sinicën dhe sinicarët me gjithë shpirt; se kur duheshin mbledhur kontribute për fshatin, për ndërtimin e kishës së Shën Thanasit , për kishën e Shën Kollit apo për rikonstruksionin e shkollës së fshatit, etj, ishte ndër të parët. Ai jo vetëm jepte vetë, por edhe mblidhte nga sinicarët e tjerë në Çikago, për t’i dërguar në fshat. Në kontributet që jepte, e mbështesnin edhe gruaja e tij, Mimoza si dhe djali, Nasi. 
        Emigrantë të rinj që vinin pas tij në Amerikë, e kujtojnë Petraqin  për zemërgjerësinë që kishte duke i dhënë jo vetëm kurajo, por edhe lek sa t'i ndodheshin. E ç’duhet të bëjë më shumë një njeri i mirë?! -Malli për vendlindjen e digjte si prush. Kur shkoi pas disa vitesh, takoi çdo fshatar dhe shkoi e piu ujë në shumë burime. Një natë vajti te Guri i Boshkos ku e kishte fshatin si në pëllëmbë të dorës. Donte të shkonte përsëri, thotë Momoza, por sëmundja nuk e la.
Petraqi me bashkëshorten Mimoza dhe djalin, Nasi

KUSH ISHTE PETRAQI 

     
Kujtim nga vitet
e ushtrisë
Po themi shkurt disa fjalë për ata që nuk e njohin. Ishte një nga djemtë e Irakli Dimashit, nga Sinica që tani përfshihet në rrethin e Devollit. (Para viteve ’90, bënte pjesë në rrethin e Korçës.) U lind dhe u rrit në Sinicë. Pas mbarimit të shkollës 7 vjeçare në fshat, vazhdoi shkollën “Skënderbej” si dhe “Shkollën e Bashkuar të Oficerëve” në Tiranë, të cilën e mbaroi në vitin 1980. Këtë vit kur ishte me stazh në fshatin Drenovë, u njoh me Mimoza Nolen, e cila u bë bashkëudhëtarja e jetës së tij. Punoi në disa reparte të rrethit të Korçës si shef ndërlidhje në repartet e  Dardhës, Drenovës, Bellovodës, në Korçë ,etj. Në vitin 1994, si shumë oficerë të tjerë, e liruan edhe Petraqin. Në vitin 1996, ardhi në Amerikë dhe u vendos në Çikago, ku kishte patur edhe më parë mjaft sinicarë, midis tyre edhe të afërm të tij. Në fillim punoi si mekanik e supervizor në kompaninë e sinicarit, Xhorxh Shamata. Më pas u punësua në kompaninë e njohur të shitjeve”Wollmart”, ku qëndroi për disa vjet. “Imperiali” ishte kompania tjetër e njohur ku Petraqi gjithashtu la gjurmë të pashlyera.

NJË VLERËSIM I VEÇANTË

            Kompania “Imperial” ku ai punoi për disa vjet, një ditë organizoi një veprimtari me punonjësit e saj. Ishte ftuar edhe Petraqi me bashkëshorten. Në fillim foli pronari i kompanisë për punën dhe arritjet e saj. Para se ta mbyllte fjalën, ai tha:”Këtu mes nesh, ndodhet një punonjës të cilin dua ta falenderoj në mënyrë të veçantë. Ai nuk është vetëm mekanik, por është i gjithanshëm, bën çdo punë. Petraqi ka bërë edhe punën e doktorit. Një ditë, një punonjës i yni, kishte pësuar atak dhe rezikohej të vdiste. Petraqi si të ishte mjek, i bëri frymëmarje artificiale dhe e shpëtoi. Kur mbriti ambulance, personi në fjalë e kishte kaluar situatën.(Kështu si "mjek" në momentet e para, ai i është gjendur edhe personave të tjerë në kompanitë që ka punuar.) Unë nuk e di se çfarë shkollash qënkan ato në Shqipëri që përgatitkan njerëz të tillë? Pastaj presidenti i kompanisë, një burrë i vjetër, u afrua te Petraqi dhe e përqafoi. Pas tij, e përqafoi edhe i biri. Salla shpërtheu në duartrokitje. Mua më shpëtuan lotë, shprehet Mimoza. Po ky bos i kompanisë, si mirënjohje për punën e mirë që bënte, për Krishtlindje i jepte Petraqit një çek të mirë.
Në Çikago me nënë Ollgën, vëllanë Andrea,  me Mimozën, Nasin, etj.
“LERENI DUHANIN TË MOS PËSONI FATIN TIM” 
    
            Petraqi vuajti nga sëmundja më shumë se një vit. Kishte patur kancer në mushkëri. Familja dhe mjekët bënë çdo gjë për ta shpëtuar por pa rezultat. Pas një mjekimi të posaçëm, gjendja u përmirësua dhe familja mendoi se ia hodhi. Por, nuk qe e thënë. Sëmundja kishte “dremitur” brenda trupit të tij të shëndoshë dhe pastaj kishte kaluar në tru. Kjo ishte edhe faza finale që e mposhti Petraqin. Pas analizave që bënë mjekët e Çikagos, dolën në përfundim se sëmundja e tij ishte”Big one smog cancer”( një kancer i madh nga duhani.) Mjekët kishin qëlluar në shenjë. Petraqi kishte pirë duhan për afro 40 vjet. E la kur u sëmur, por ishte vonë. Mjeket thanë:”Po ta kishte lënë para dy vjetësh, do kishte shpëtuar”. Kur mësoi shkakun e sëmundjes dhe fundin që e priste, i bëri apel djalit, miqve e shokëve:”Lereni duhanin që mos pësoni fatin tim”.
        Petraqi u përcoll me nderime nga shumë pjesëmarrës: sinicarë, qytezarë, dardharë si dhe shokë e miq të tjerë. Ai do prehet në vorrezat e shqiptarëve në Çikago, pranë të afërmve të tij. Ja kështu na iku edhe një nga sinicarët më të mire, por që nuk do të harrohet.

Kujtime nga Sinica. .....  ..


Me Thoma Pazollin e Perikli Panon
Me Marjon Panon e Koço Dimashin

Gusht, 2017.

Thursday 24 August 2017

Agricultural Health Safety


M.J. Perry
The George Washington University,
 Washington, DC, USA
2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)
Melissa Perry

Scope of the Problem

           Agriculture originated more than 11 000 years ago and is one of the world’s oldest and largest industries. Currently more than a third of the world’s employed population is engaged in agriculture, totaling 1.05 billion people in 2012 (International Labour Organization, ILO, 2013a). Agriculture employment patterns vary in part by the level of a country’s economic development. In many developed nations, the largest share of employment is in the services sector, followed by industry, with a small proportion, usually less than 10%, in agriculture. In other nations, predominantly transitional economies, agriculture accounts for the largest proportion of employment, followed by services and then industry (International Labour Organization, ILO, 2013a). For example, in North America 7 million people are engaged in agriculture, whereas in Asia about 400 million people are working on farms consisting primarily of family-owned plots. Farming in developed countries has transitioned into large-scale production agriculture involving larger farms often owned by companies rather than individuals. In North America and Europe, the number of family owned farms is shrinking and the holdings of the remaining farms are increasing. In developed and developing nations, peasants and subsistence farmers working only small plots of land produce four-fifths of developing countries’ food supply, yet these agricultural workers may be among the poorest sectors of society. They may live in isolated rural conditions with substandard housing, inadequate access to clean water and health care, and with little or no educational opportunities or other economic options.
        The economic hardships of rural poverty are compounded by the health demands intrinsic to agricultural labor. Farming is one of the most hazardous occupations and people working on farms worldwide experience injuries and disease associated with both subsistence and production agriculture. Sources of hazards can be broadly grouped into those from trauma, chemical exposure, psychosocial stressors, and pulmonary exposures. Regardless of the scale of operations, agricultural work entails numerous occupational health risks, many of which can be targeted for prevention. For the most part, this article discusses health issues experienced by individuals working in agriculture including farm owners, farm family members, and farmworkers. Risks to children living or working in the farm environment are also discussed.

Agricultural Workers and Their Families
         Some of the major health problems, both acute and chronic, among adult farming populations include respiratory disorders, cancer, neurologic problems, injuries and traumatic deaths, skin diseases, hearing loss, stress, and problems in reproduction. In countries where mechanization is a routine part of farming, the leading agents of fatal and nonfatal injuries to farmers and farmworkers are tractors and farm machinery, followed by livestock, building structures, falls, and bodies of water. Environmental exposures include pesticides, volatile organic compounds (fuel), noxious gases, airborne irritants, noise, vibration, zoonoses, and stress. Farm family members may also be exposed to these hazards, making agriculture a unique example of the intersection of occupational and environmental exposures. On the approximately 2.2 million farms in the United States in 2010, for example, there were about 800,000 farm workers and 6.2 million farm residents. In 2010 the number employed in the agriculture sector in the 27 member countries of the European Union (EU27) was over 10 million people. The 2011 rate of nonfatal injuries in the EU27 was 1870 per 100 000 workers, and the leading agents responsible are similar to those in the United States, which includes machinery, falls, and hazardous environmental exposures. In countries where mechanization is not routine, the leading agents of fatal and nonfatal injuries to farmers and farmworkers are livestock, pesticides, zoonoses, and stress.
        Farming is also unique in that child labor is common. Special consideration must be given to the health risks faced by children working in agriculture. The maturing organ systems of children and adolescents may be especially vulnerable to the harmful effects of hazards commonplace in agriculture, such as chemical exposures and physical stressors. Data on the scope of child farm labor in developing countries are scarce; however, estimates from 2012 suggest around 101 million children worldwide are working in agriculture (International Labour Organization, ILO, 2013b). Globally, child labor has been a part of plantation agriculture throughout its history; families working on plantations as contract laborers must rely on all members of the family unit working together to increase productivity and in turn, their compensation. On family-owned farms in the United States, approximately 27% of farm residents are youths less than 20 years old, and at least 300 000 youths between the ages of 15 and 17 work alongside their parents as farmworkers. Although the exact number of youths exposed to farm hazards annually in the United States is unknown, it has been estimated at more than 2 million.
       Women account for over half of the global agricultural workforce; however, they are often overlooked in international labor statistics. In addition to facing the same hazards as male agricultural workers face, women working in agriculture during their reproductive years may be exposed to toxic chemicals or physical demands that can also cause problems with reproduction and pregnancy maintenance. There is also concern that women who are exposed to biologically active chemicals during agricultural work may be at risk for hormone disruption across the lifespan, from their pre-reproductive years through menopause and beyond.

Sources of Hazards and Health Risks


         Two health specialty areas dealing with agriculture are worth noting. Agricultural medicine refers to the subdivision of public health and/or occupational medicine included in the training and practice of health professionals. Agro-medicine refers to a specialty partnership between agricultural and medical professionals invested in reducing illness and deaths related to agriculture. Agro-medicine has focused on core health areas of traumatic injury, pulmonary exposures, and agrochemical injury. Table 1 provides a general guide to these agriculture-related health risks. Rather than serving as a complete guide, the table is designed to highlight the principal exposures and possible manifestations that public health practitioners should be aware of when designing programs to improve health and safety in the agricultural environment (Zejda et al., 1993).


Fatal and Nonfatal Injuries

         Disabling injuries and accidental deaths represent one of the most disturbing aspects of safety risks in agriculture. Globally 170 000 agricultural workers die each year from traumatic injuries and the fatal injury rate in agriculture is twice that of other industries. Injuries on the farm involve tractor rollovers, machine injuries, animal injuries, and farmyard injuries. An estimated 15 000 children under the age of 20 years who lived on, worked on, or visited farms and ranches were injured in 1998, and approximately 100 unintentional injury deaths occur annually among children and adolescents on U.S. farms (Myers and Hendricks, 2001). Children account for about 20% of all U.S. farm fatalities and a higher proportion of the total number of nonfatal farm injuries. Farm machinery (including tractors) is the leading cause of fatality to farm youth less than 20 years of age in the United States. Thirty percent of farm machinery-related deaths are among children less than 5 years of age. Drowning is the second leading cause of death on farms with children less than 5 years of age, accounting for 32% of the deaths. The most common injury resulting in death is to the head or brain, accounting for nearly two-thirds of the total. The leading sources of nonfatal injuries are surfaces, animals, and nonindustrial off-road vehicles; and the leading causes of these injuries are falls, off-road transportation accidents, and being struck by objects. The parts of the body most commonly injured are hands, head, and legs and the most frequent types of injury are lacerations, fractures, and scrapes or abrasions.
         For all workers, especially field workers, fatigue increases the risk of injury. Long hours, early morning hours, and work in very hot conditions all increase fatigue, as does the heavy physical labor entailed in most agricultural work. The relative inexperience of young workers also increases their risk of accidents and injury. Farmers identify stress and overwork as a main reason for forgoing pesticide safety practices and rushing is a well-established risk factor for machine-related injury in a variety of settings. Younger age, the presence of hearing loss or joint trouble, and working more hours per day are also strong predictors of severe injury (Hwang et al., 2001).

Trauma from Overexertion or Repetitive Motion

        Ergonomic hazards refer to physical demands placed on the body that can lead to disorders and loss of function. Agricultural work in particular has been linked to musculoskeletal trauma due to the stresses on the body of constant bending, lifting, twisting, and other awkward or punishing work. In the European Union, for example, close to 60% of workers in agriculture and fishing are exposed to painful positions at work half the time or more and 50% carry heavy loads at work half the time or more. Numerous farming tasks such as propagation and harvesting require workers to stand, bend, or stoop in demanding positions for long periods of time. Sprains, strains, and overexertion are all common injuries, especially for workers engaged in manual cultivation. Nursery workers engage in repetitive gripping and cutting. They work virtually full-time year round without rotation to other jobs. In the short term, horticultural workers often report pain and numbness in the hand, wrist, and arm. After an extended time on the job, they are at high risk for carpal tunnel syndrome, a disabling condition of the hand.

Noise


        Although little population-based data are available, as much as 55% of farmers older than 50 may have clinically significant hearing impairment. Hearing impairment related to noise generated by farm equipment develops early in life. Rural students have a 2.5 times greater hearing loss than urban students and that discrepancy increases with age and number of years worked in farming. Farmers and farm family members are exposed to excessive noise from equipment used on the farm, including tractors, grain dryers, combines, bush hogs, and chain saws. Noise- induced hearing loss occurs with continued exposure to high levels of noise; it is cumulative and irreversible. Noise-induced hearing loss results from the destruction of the cochlear hair cells in the inner ear. There are two types of hearing damage caused by excessive noise. Acoustic trauma occurs when the ears are exposed to a single sudden sound above 140 dB(A) (decibels measured on the A scale, which incorporates weighing that takes into account the ear’s varying response to sounds of different frequencies) and the sensory cells are permanently dislodged and destroyed. Gunshot blasts or explosions can cause acoustic trauma. Prolonged exposure to noises above 85 dB(A) can result in damage, though not necessarily permanent, to the cochlear nerve cells. Permanent damage to hearing occurs when exposure to excessive noise levels continues and the nerve cells are not given sufficient time to recover. There is no universal agreement on recovery duration. There is ample evidence that the damage is insidious, usually beginning at a young age, and in the long run, usually severe enough to affect a person’s ability to hear and understand speech. Some evidence suggests that chemicals such as solvents and pesticides can interact with occupational noise exposure, resulting in a greater risk for hearing loss than noise exposure alone. This mixture of exposures may be particularly harmful for young farmworkers (Perry and May, 2005).

Stress

        There is little doubt that farming is one of the most stressful occupations in both developed and developing countries. Both farm workers and farm family members are exposed to the economic pressures of their family livelihood, the future of which remains precarious at best. The influence of stress is manifested by psychological or emotional disturbance such as alcohol abuse among family members, as well as by the creation of insecure working conditions. Being unmarried, having negative life events within the past year (legal problems, substantial income decline, and/or loss of something of sentimental value), and lower perceived general health status have been identified as significant risk factors for depressive symptoms among male farmers in the United States. 
        Farm workers in general have high rates of depression. Extreme poverty and hardship, the stress of job uncertainty and frequent moves, and social stigmatization and isolation are contributing factors. This is true for children and youth as well. Studies have also linked depression in workers to long hours of work in high-intensity, low- skilled jobs, precisely the kind of labor undertaken by farm workers.
        Having one’s livelihood controlled by the uncertainty of the weather and the agricultural market combined with the social isolation often experienced by rural inhabitants increase the risk for psychological distress. Rural areas of China and Sri Lanka, for example, have seen an increase in suicides among subsistence farmers, many of whom are using toxic farm chemicals to poison themselves. Identifying symptoms of psychosocial stress in farmers requires history taking and consultation to determine current social and economic conditions in the family. Depressive symptoms are expressed differently in men and women. Knowing that adult farm owners and farm workers are at higher risk for psychological disturbance should alert health-care providers and public health practitioners to the need for outreach to these high-risk groups. Because health-care providers are usually the first mental health contact for rural residents, they play an important role in the early identification of psychological distress in farmers, farm workers, and their families.

Sanitation

       Agricultural health clinicians have identified hygiene as being key in preventing bacterial infections from animals and dermatoses caused by chemical contamination. However, farmers themselves may forego the minimum sanitation requirements when working in fields as a means of saving time and effort or because water is simply not available. Regulations in the United States illustrate how basic public health protections may not be in place for agricultural workers. Access to clean drinking water, water for hand washing, and toilet facilities are the minimum sanitation requirements imposed on farms by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the occupational regulatory agency in the United States. Even these minimal requirements, however, may be ignored by growers and by the farm labor contractors who bring in workers. Furthermore, labor laws prohibit enforcement of these regulations on farms with ten employees or less, essentially exempting small farms. An estimated 95% of all U.S. farms fall under this exemption. Health-care providers and public health practitioners should consider the multiple sources of contamination in the farm environment and consider hygiene as having a role in sources of infections, especially of the skin.

Heat
        Heat-related illnesses can lead to death or brain damage and are an ever-present danger for field workers. In the United States alone, there are approximately 400 deaths annually from heat-related illnesses. Risk for heat stress during the growing season is particularly acute, especially during haying and harvesting. It is recommended that workers laboring under hot weather conditions drink a minimum of 8 oz of water every half hour. Very high heat or humidity increases the amount of recommended water, so that, for example, a person working in 90 F heat under a full sun should drink 8 oz of water every 15 min. Ensuring sources of fresh water are abundant is critical to maintain workers’ hydration needs. Excessive sun exposure places farmers at risk for future skin malignancies and must be prevented with proper head and body covering, which can also increase the risk of heat stress from too much clothing. Keeping farmers hydrated, protected from the sun, and ensuring a minimum of 10 min of break time during each hour can reduce the risk of illnesses from overexposure to heat and sun.

Hazardous Organic and Inorganic Exposures
       Potentially harmful exposures exist in a variety of forms in the farm environment, including solvents, pesticides, paints, welding and combustion fumes, plant toxins, and animal bacteria and viruses. Their possible health effects vary widely and can include acute intoxication, Parkinson’s disease, peripheral neuritis, acute and chronic encephalopathy, various cancers, and reproductive problems.

Solvents
        A solvent is a liquid used to dissolve other substances. The most toxic solvents are extracted or manufactured for chemical use. Most solvents are colorless liquids at room temperature that volatilize easily and have strong odors. These compounds may be referred to as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in reference to their physiochemical properties. Many commonly used solvents such as gasoline, kerosene, and jet fuel are mixtures of solvents and other chemicals. They are widely used for manufacturing, degreasing and other cleaning, and as carrying agents in products ranging from insecticides to glues and paints. The most common solvents and solvent mixtures found in the farm environment include pesticides, fuels, paints, and metal degreasers. There is little information from animal or human studies about the health effects of chronic low-dose exposure. Solvents are most commonly inhaled in their volatilized form and absorbed via the respiratory track.
      Significant doses of solvents may occur through skin exposure and absorption. Most solvents are lipid-soluble but some are water-soluble. Animal studies in the toxicology literature emphasize the role of solvents as neurotoxins. The majority of solvents are central nervous system depressants and some have long-term neuropsychological effects, including chronic toxic encephalopathy. In adults, the following neurobehavioral problems resulting from chronic solvent exposure have been recorded in the literature: memory loss, decreased problem-solving ability, decreased attention span, impaired dexterity and hand–eye coordination, altered reaction time, reduced psychomotor function, and altered personality or mood. In addition to neurotoxic effects, other documented health effects from solvent exposure in adults are pulmonary sensitization, bradycardia, and ventricular fibrillation, defatting of the dermis, chemical burns, and hearing loss.

Pesticides
         Agriculture experienced a chemical revolution after the Second World War with the broad-scale introduction of pesticides to control unwanted pests and fertilizers to enhance soil productivity. This revolution brought with it a series of unintended occupational and environmental health consequences, and exposure to pesticides is a serious risk to farmworkers worldwide. Data from the United States illustrate exposure circumstances for people both working in and living in the agricultural environment. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that as many as 300 000 farmworkers suffer pesticide poisoning each year while the U.S. Natural Resources Defense Council estimates as many as 40 000 physician-diagnosed poisonings occur each year (Natural Resources Defense Council, NRDC, 1998). The International Labour Organization reports that globally 70 000 agricultural workers die annually from exposures to pesticides. Only a small percentage of pesticide-related illnesses are reported to government or health officials.
         Pesticides include herbicides to control weeds, insecticides to control a range of insects, nematocides to control worms, and fungicides to control molds, fungi, and other mycotoxins. Exposures can happen when workers are mixing, loading, transporting, or applying pesticides, and the three main routes of exposure are dermal, inhalation, or ingestion. Risk of exposure can be compounded by lack of or improper protective gear, leaking containers, illicit formulations, faulty labeling of the chemical, improper application, and illiteracy. Workers may also be exposed to pesticides if they drink from, wash their hands, or bathe in irrigation canals or holding ponds, where pesticides can accumulate.
         While acute pesticide health effects have been well documented, epidemiological investigations continue to evaluate chronic health effects. Toxicologic and epidemiologic data reviewed in this section largely originate from adult animal and adult human studies. Infants and children may be exceptionally vulnerable to health complications from exposures due to their developing neurological, immunological, and reproductive systems and due to differences in their ability to metabolize and excrete toxicants
(Perry, 2003).
         There is evidence that farm families experience elevated levels of pesticide residues in their blood and urine. A recent investigation from the U.S. Agricultural Health Study reported that agricultural families could receive an absorbed dose of pesticides after application by a member of the family. The report used indoor air sampling, hand wipe sampling, serum, and urine monitoring to evaluate exposures to the family of a single farm applicator. The farmer applied the carbamate insecticidecarbaryl to pumpkins using a hand-cranked duster. His serum carbaryl levels rose by 3 orders of magnitude following use of thepesticide, and the carbaryl metabolite was detectable in his urine. Urine metabolite measurements taken from his wife and twochildren showed a doubling of excretion of the carbaryl metabolite following application of the pesticide. These results were seen in the absence of a quantifiable increased carbaryl concentration in indoor air or house dust (Shealy et al., 1997).
         Additional preliminary results from the Agricultural Health Study revealed that elevated blood serum pesticide levels were detected in some farm families. The very potent organochlorine insecticide dieldrin, which has been banned in the United States since 1987, was found at significantly elevated levels in the blood of all members of one of the six farm families sampled. Further investigation revealed persistently elevated levels of this pesticide in food samples on the farm, although all legal food uses of this pesticide were canceled in 1974. Other persistent organochlorine pesticides identified in the blood of farm families included chlordane and transnonachlor (Brock et al., 1998).
         Residents living near fields sprayed with organophosphate pesticides had small reductions in plasma and whole blood levels of the neurotransmitter enzyme cholinesterase during the spraying season compared with residents living farther from the fields and with their own cholinesterase levels off-season. At the same time, infirmary records indicated a significant increase in visits for certain symptoms on days when organophosphate pesticides were sprayed. Symptoms included respiratory problems, headache, and eye irritation (Richter et al., 1986). These data suggested that exposures to organophosphate pesticide drift might result in quantifiable cholinesterase inhibition and symptoms requiring medical treatment in residents living nearby application fields.
         In adults, acute pesticide exposures resulting in poisoning symptoms have been well documented. The chronic health effects
from pesticide exposures that have been reported include neurobehavioral problems, Parkinson’s symptoms, various cancers, and problems in reproduction including sterility.
         The problem of unintended consequences of pesticide exposures globally is compounded by poor public health protections for workers and a lack of comprehensive regulations focused on controlling exposures for citizens. The World Health Organization (Dinham and Malik, 2003) estimates that 20000 women, men, and children die of accidental pesticide poisonings each year; three million are nonfatally poisoned, and nearly three-fourths of a million new people each year experience chronic effects from exposure. Some industrializing countries in Asia and Africa are either importing pesticides that are banned elsewhere or are producing them locally. Compounds known to have considerable toxicity and that are environmentally or biologically persistent such as organochlorines remain in use in over 20 different countries today, while the long-term ecological and public health consequences of continued use remain unknown.

Microbes and Their Toxins
         Grain dusts, molds, and fungi are among several plant-based irritants that abound in the agricultural environment and that cause a host of respiratory problems in adult farmers. The clinical features of adult illnesses caused by these irritants should be considered with regard to the potential for child exposures as well. As with other chronic diseases, chronic respiratory diseases are likely to originate during early exposures, with damage accumulating over time until eventual clinical symptoms appear. Preventing suchexposures early may be the key to reducing respiratory disease in adulthood.
         Grain dust is a complex substance composed of plant debris, insect parts, silica, chemical residues, molds, fungi and bacteria and their metabolites, including endotoxins. Approximately 40% of its particles are less than 5 mmin mean diameter and representa respirable piece that can penetrate the terminal bronchioles. Exposure to antigens from organic dusts may be responsible for hypersensitivity pneumonitis, which has a reported prevalence of 0.1–15% among adult farmers. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis is difficult to diagnose in adult farmers because it has an insidious course and appears as recurrent influenza-like episodes or nonspecific respiratory symptoms and may result in chronic respiratory problems that look like pulmonary fibrosis.
         The organic-dust toxic syndrome is an acute response to inhaling organic dust, usually characterized by a delayed onset of fever, malaise, and chest tightness that does not evidence immunologic involvement and has an apparently benign course without longterm respiratory impairment. Possible mechanisms include a toxic reaction to endotoxins, mycotoxins, or proteinase enzymes of moldy plant materials. It is related to dust level and can be reproduced in laboratory subjects exposed to high concentrations of grain dust. Exposures responsible for the related condition extrinsic allergic alveolitis (farmer’s lung) are actinomycetes such as Micropolyspora faeni, fungi, and animal proteins present in many agricultural environments.
       Working in confined spaces such as silos or manure pits can pose risks for exposure to toxic gases such as nitrogen dioxide from fermented grain or methane gas emitted from manure. Both of these gases can be fatal when inhaled, therefore proper ventilation of enclosures is critical for mitigating acute exposures.

Carcinogens
         While the epidemiologic data are not conclusive enough to demonstrate causality for any one agricultural exposure, a number of increased cancer risks have been associated with either farming or specifically with pesticide exposure, including non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, leukemia, multiple myeloma, soft tissue sarcoma, Hodgkin’s disease, and cancer of the prostate, pancreas, ovary,
breast, and testis. Currently only arsenic-containing insecticides are recognized as known human carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, but many other pesticides are suspected. Agricultural workers are also at excess risk for developing skin cancer, which is most often caused by chronic exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

Skin Irritants
         Data from studies of adult farmers indicate that skin irritation starts soon after employment commencement and increases to involve more than 60% of workers after 4 years of employment in the grain industry (Zejda et al., 1993). Skin cancers, dermatophyte infections, and pesticide-related skin diseases are common in farmers.
         The impact of microscopic fungi on farmers’ health seems to be greater than originally understood. The infection may be transmitted from infected humans, animals, plants, or soil. To date, little epidemiological data on fungal skin disease in farmers are available. Epidemiological studies from Poland suggest that mycoses are the most prevalent skin diseases in farmers and may be present in over 20% of the population (Spiewak, 1998). Working conditions on farms directly contribute to the development of fungal infections. Farmers may spend extended periods working in humid conditions and long hours wearing rubber boots or gloves. Besides infection, fungi may also cause noninvasive forms of skin disease, such as dermato-mycotoxicosis professionalis or alternariosis. Most pesticide-related dermatoses are contact dermatitis, both allergic and irritant. Rare clinical forms also occur, including urticaria, erythema multiforme, ashy dermatosis, para- keratosis variegata, porphyria cutanea tarda, chloracne, skin hypopigmentation, and nail and hair disorders.

Reducing Health Risks to Agricultural Workers
         In a work environment such as agriculture with an assortment of hazards, what is the best approach to preventing injuries and disease? A useful way of thinking about prevention is to adopt an integrated strategy that draws upon key aspects from public health, industrial hygiene, and environmental leadership models. Occupational disease and injury are caused by exposure to hazards on the job, and prevention requires controlling exposures. Anticipation of hazardous exposures, surveillance of hazards and health effects, analysis of health effects, and ultimately hazard control are all critical parts of an integrated approach to prevention.
         Four basic choices for controlling hazards, in order of their preference, are agricultural production process reengineering, work
environment controls, administrative controls, and worker behavior controls, including personal protective equipment and devices. Reengineering production agriculture means rethinking the machinery, tools, equipment, and chemicals used to produce food world-wide. In developed countries where farmers rely on machinery for sowing, tilling, and cultivating crops, this can mean redesigning how workers must interact directly with machinery or the ways machines operate. In developing countries, productionprocess reengineering can mean introducing machinery to reduce the amount of punishing physical labor farmers must endure. Another example of production-process reengineering is transitioning to less chemically intensive agricultural practices. Known as Integrated Pest Management (IPM), this comprehensive approach relies on crop diversity and natural pest resistance sources such as beneficial insects, reducing reliance on commercial inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides. Integrated Pest Management programs can be economically feasible, environmentally sustainable, and health promoting by reducing harmful exposures to
workers and their families.
         Developing healthy agricultural work environments can be as basic as ensuring adequate access to clean drinking water or as multifaceted as diversifying tasks within farm cooperatives to reduce psychological monotony and repetitive physical strain. Machine guarding the power take off (PTOs) units on farm machines such as tractors, hay bailers, and combines is a simple yet effective occupational safety intervention focused on placing physical barriers between workers and hazards. Optimizing administrative controls to reduce risks to workers’ health includes enforcement of public health protections, from child labor restrictions
to controls over pesticide manufacturing and distribution. It is preferable to change the working environment rather than the worker; however, giving workers’ access to adequate information and training is a necessary part of promoting healthy working environments. Adequate training in the health risks posed by personal exposures to pesticides and strategies for protection is a good example of targeting worker behavior controls to decrease hazardous exposures.


References
1)    Brock JW, Melnyk LJ, Caudill SP, Needham LL, and Bond AE (1998) Serum levels of several organochlorine pesticides in farmers correspond with dietary exposure and local use history. Toxicology and Industrial Health 14(1–2): 275–289.

2)    Dinham B and Malik S (2003) Pesticides and human rights. International Journal of Occupational & Environmental Health 9(1): 40–52.

3)    Hwang SA, Gomez MI, Stark AD, St John TL, May JJ, and Hallman EM (2001) Severe farm injuries among New York farmers. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 40(1): 32–41.

4)    International Labour Organization (ILO) (2013) Employment by Sector. Key Indicators of the Labor Market, 8th edition. http://www.ilo.org/empelm/what/WCMS_114240/lang–en/ index.htm.

5)    International Labour Organization (ILO) (2013) Global Child Labour Trends 2008–2012. http://www.ilo.org/ipecinfo/product/download.do?type.document&id.23015.

6)    Myers, J.R. & Hendricks, K.J. 2001, Injuries among youth on farms in the United States, 1998 [electronic resource]/John R. Myers and Kitty J. Hendricks, Atlanta, GA]: Dept. of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2001].

7)    Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) (1998) Trouble on the Farm: Growing Up with Pesticides in Agricultural Communities. New York: Natural Resources Defense Council.

8)    Perry MJ (2003) Children’s agricultural health: traumatic injuries and hazardous inorganic exposures. Journal of Rural Health 19(3): 269–278.
9)    Perry MJ and May JJ (2005) Noise and chemical induced hearing loss: special considerations for farm youth. Journal of Agromedicine 10(2): 49–55.

10) Richter ED, Rosenvald Z, Kaspi L, Levy S, and Gruener N (1986) Sequential cholinesterase tests and symptoms for monitoring organophosphate absorption in field workers and in persons exposed to pesticide spray drift. Toxicology Letters 33(1–3): 25–35.

11) Shealy DB, Barr JR, Ashley DL, Patterson DG Jr, Camann DE, and Bond AE (1997) Correlation of environmental carbaryl measurements with serum and urinary 1-naphthol measurements in a farmer applicator and his family. Environmental Health Perspectives 105(5): 510–513.

12) Spiewak R (1998) Zoophilic and geophilic fungi as a cause of skin disease in farmers. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine: AAEM 5(2): 97–102.

13) Zejda JE, McDuffie HH, and Dosman JA (1993) Epidemiology of health and safety risks in agriculture and related industries. Practical applications for rural physicians. The Western Journal of Medicine 158(1): 56–63.

Further Reading
Alavanja MCR, Hoppin J, and Kamel F (2004) Health effects of chronic pesticide exposure: Cancer and neurotoxicity. Annual Reviews of Public Health 25: 155–197.

Levy BS and Wegman DH (eds.) (2000) Occupational Health: Recognizing and Preventing Work-Related Disease and Injury, 4th edn Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott.

Schuman SH and Simpson WM (1997) AG-MED: The Rural Practitioner’s Guide to Agromedicine. Kansas City, MO: American Academy of Family Physicians.

Stellman JM (ed.) Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety . (2011). Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office. online edn., ch. 64, Agriculture and Natural Resources Based Industries. http://www.ilo.org/oshenc/.

United States, Department of Agriculture (USDA) (2000) National Agricultural Statistics Service Agriculture Report 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

United States, Department of Labor (USDL) (2005) Findings from the National Agricultural Workers Survey: 2001–2002. A Demographic and Employment Profile of United States

Farmworkers. Report No. 9, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Relevant Websites
http://www.cehn.org – Children’s Environmental Health Network.
http://osha.europa.eu/sector/agriculture – European Agency for Safety and Health at Work.
http://www.fao.org – Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations.
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/index.htm – International Labour Organization.
http://www.ncfh.org – National Center for Farmworker Health.
http://www.nagcat.org – North American Guidelines for Children’s Agricultural Tasks (NAGCAT).
http://www.aghealth.org – U.S. Agricultural Health Study.
http://nasdonline.org/ – U.S. National Agricultural Safety Database.
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2004–146/ – Worker Health, Chartbook.